Pit Bull Dies After Protecting Florida Kids From Snake, Family Says

Group of venomous snakes of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus

Rattlesnake
Crotalus cerastes
Crotalus cerastes
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family unit: Viperidae
Subfamily: Crotalinae
Included genera
  • Crotalus Linnaeus, 1758
  • Sistrurus Garman, 1883
Excluded genera

The subfamily likewise includes many genera of pit vipers that are not rattlesnakes.

Rattlesnakes (plural of rattlesnake) are the venomous snakes forming the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus [i] of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. The scientific proper noun Crotalus is derived from the Greek κρόταλον, meaning "castanet".[ii] The name Sistrurus is the Latinized class of the Greek give-and-take for "tail rattler" (Σείστρουρος, seistrouros) and shares its root with the aboriginal Egyptian musical musical instrument the sistrum, a type of rattle.[iii] The 36 known species of rattlesnakes have between 65 and seventy subspecies,[4] all native to the Americas, ranging from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and southern British Columbia in Canada to primal Argentina. The largest rattlesnake, the eastern diamondback, can measure upwardly to eight ft (two.four m) in length.[five] Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such every bit birds and rodents.

Rattlesnakes receive their proper name from the rattle located at the cease of their tails, which makes a loud rattling noise when vibrated that deters predators or serves as a warning to passers-by.[half dozen] However, rattlesnakes fall prey to hawks, weasels, rex snakes, and a variety of other species. Rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon as neonates, while they are nonetheless weak and young. Large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans. Rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened past habitat devastation, poaching, and extermination campaigns.

Rattlesnakes are the leading contributor to snakebite injuries in Due north America, simply rarely seize with teeth unless provoked or threatened; if treated promptly, the bites are seldom fatal.

Ecology [edit]

Range and habitat [edit]

Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox), responsible for the majority of venomous snakebites in North America, coiled in defensive posture with rattle cock

Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas, living in various habitats from southwestern Canada to central Argentina. The large majority of species lives in the American Southwest and Mexico. Four species may be constitute east of the Mississippi River, and ii in South America. In the United States, the state with the most types of rattlesnakes is Arizona, with 13. They are usually found in grasslands.[ citation needed ]

Rattlesnakes are constitute in almost every habitat type capable of supporting terrestrial ectothermic vertebrates, just individual species tin have extremely specific habitat requirements, only able to live within certain plant associations in a narrow range of altitudes. Most species live virtually open, rocky areas. Rocks offering them comprehend from predators, plentiful casualty (e.k. rodents, lizards, insects, etc. that live amongst the rocks), and open basking areas. However, rattlesnakes can likewise be constitute in a wide variety of other habitats, including prairies, marshes, deserts, and forests.[vii] Rattlesnakes prefer a temperature range between 80 and 90 °F (26 and 32 °C), simply tin can survive temperatures beneath freezing, recovering from brief exposure to temperatures as depression as iv °F (−16 °C), and surviving for several days in temperatures as depression as 37 °F (iii °C).[8]

The most probable ancestral surface area of rattlesnakes is the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Mexico. The near likely vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area appears to be pine-oak forests.[9] Feeding habits play an important ecological function by limiting the size of rodent populations, which prevents crop impairment and stabilizes ecosystems.[10]

Prey [edit]

Rattlesnakes typically consume mice, rats, rabbits, squirrels, small birds, and other small animals.[11] They lie in wait for their prey, or hunt for it in holes.[12] [13] The rattlesnake's defence and hunting mechanisms are bound to its physiology and its environs. More chiefly environmental temperature tin influence the power of ectotherms.[fourteen] The casualty is killed speedily with a venomous bite as opposed to constriction. If the bitten casualty moves abroad earlier dying, the rattlesnake tin follow it by its odor.[15] [xvi] When it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of aroma. In one case the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth. The prey is then ingested head offset, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a style that minimizes the girth of the meal.[17] The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of flesh and bone. Optimal digestion occurs when the ophidian maintains a torso temperature between 80 and 85 °F (25 and 29 °C). If the prey is pocket-size, the rattlesnake ofttimes continues hunting. If the repast was acceptable, the serpent finds a warm, safe location in which to ringlet up and rest until the prey is digested.[18]

Hydration [edit]

Rattlesnakes are believed to require at least their own body weight in water annually to remain hydrated. The method by which they potable depends on the h2o source. In larger bodies of water (streams, ponds, etc.), they submerge their heads and ingest water by opening and closing their jaws, which sucks in water. If drinking dew or minor puddles, they sip the liquid either by capillary action or by flattening and flooding their lower jaws.[19]

Predators [edit]

Newborn rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon by a variety of species, including cats,[20] ravens, crows, roadrunners, raccoons, opossums, skunks, coyotes, weasels, whipsnakes, kingsnakes, and racers. Immature of the smaller crotaline species are frequently killed and eaten past small predatory birds, such as jays, kingfishers, and shrikes. Some species of ants in the genus Formica are known to prey upon neonates, and Solenopsis invicta (fire ants) likely do, as well. On occasion, hungry adult rattlesnakes cannibalize neonates. The small proportion (often as few as 20%) of rattlesnakes that make it to their 2nd year are heavily preyed upon by a diversity of larger predators, including coyotes, eagles, hawks, owls, falcons, feral pigs, badgers, indigo snakes, and kingsnakes.[21]

The common kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula), a constrictor, is immune to the venom of rattlesnakes and other vipers, and rattlesnakes form part of its natural nutrition. Rattlesnakes sense kingsnakes' presence past their odor.[22] When they realize a kingsnake is nearby, they begin enacting a set up of defensive postures known as "body bridging". Unlike its normal cock and coiled defensive-hitting posture, the rattlesnake keeps its head depression to the ground in an attempt to prevent the kingsnake from gaining a hold on information technology (the caput being the outset part of the rattlesnake to be ingested). The rattlesnake jerks its body most, while bridging its back upwards, forming an elevated coil that faces the kingsnake. The elevated curlicue is used to strike the attacker, and is also used to shield the head from the kingsnake.[23]

Anatomy [edit]

Sensory organs [edit]

Like all pit vipers, rattlesnakes have two organs that can sense radiation; their eyes and a set up of rut-sensing "pits" on their faces that enable them to locate prey and move towards information technology, based on the prey'southward thermal radiations signature. These pits accept a relatively short effective range of nigh 1 ft, but requite the rattlesnake a distinctive advantage in hunting for warm-blooded creatures at night.[24] [25]

1. Trigeminal nerve extending into the heat-sensing pit 2. Trigeminal nerve originating in the encephalon 3. Oestrus-sensing pit

Oestrus-sensing pits [edit]

Aside from their eyes, rattlesnakes are able to discover thermal radiation emitted by warm-blooded organisms in their environment.[26] Operation optically like a pinhole photographic camera eye, thermal radiations in the grade of infrared low-cal passes through the opening of the pit and strikes the pit membrane located in the dorsum wall, warming this part of the organ.[27] [28] Due to the high density of oestrus-sensitive receptors innervating this membrane, the rattlesnake can detect temperature changes of 0.003 °C or less in its immediate surroundings.[27] Infrared cues from these receptors are transmitted to the encephalon by the trigeminal nerve, where they are used to create thermal maps of the serpent's surroundings.[29] Due to the small sizes of the pit openings, typically these thermal images are low in resolution and contrast. Nevertheless, rattlesnakes superimpose visual images created from information from the eyes with these thermal images from the pit organs to more accurately visualize their surroundings in low levels of low-cal.[29] Enquiry conducted recently on the molecular mechanism of this ability suggests the temperature sensitivity of these pit organs is closely linked to the activity of transient receptor potential ankyrin one, a temperature-sensitive ion channel saturated in the pit membrane.[29]

Eyes [edit]

Rattlesnake optics, which contain many rod cells, are well adjusted to nocturnal use.[30] [31] Rattlesnakes, though, are not exclusively nocturnal, and their vision is more acute during daylight weather condition.[31] Rattlesnakes also possess cone cells, which ways they are capable of some form of color vision. The rattlesnake center lacks a fovea, making vision of sharply defined images impossible. Instead, they mostly rely on the perception of movement.[30] Rattlesnake eyes are capable of horizontal rotation, but they practice not appear to move their eyeballs to follow moving objects.[32]

Odour [edit]

Rattlesnakes accept an exceptionally keen sense of olfactory property. They can sense olfactory stimuli both through their nostrils and by flicking their tongues, which carry scent-bearing particles to the Jacobson's organs in the roof of their mouths.[33] [34]

Auditory system [edit]

Like all snakes, rattlesnakes lack external ear openings, and the structures of their middle ear are not every bit highly specialized as those of other vertebrates, such as mammals. Thus, their sense of hearing is not very effective, but they are capable of sensing vibrations in the ground, passed by the skeleton to the auditory nerve.[30]

Fangs [edit]

Rattlesnake fangs are connected by venom ducts to large venom glands near the outer border of the upper jaw, towards the rear of the caput. When the rattlesnake bites, muscles on the sides of the venom glands contract to squeeze the venom through the ducts and into the fangs. When the fangs are not in utilise, they remain folded against the palate.[35] [36]

Rattlesnakes are born with fully functioning fangs and venom, and are capable of killing prey at nascence.[21] [37] Adult rattlesnakes shed their fangs every 6–10 weeks. At least 3 pairs of replacement fangs lie behind the functional pair.[38]

Venom [edit]

The venom is hemotoxic, destroying tissue, causing necrosis and coagulopathy (disrupted claret clotting).[39] In the U.S., the tiger rattlesnake (C. tigris) and some varieties of the Mojave rattlesnake (C. scutulatus) likewise have a presynaptic neurotoxic venom component known as Mojave type A toxin, which can crusade astringent paralysis.[39] [40] [41] Although information technology has a comparatively low venom yield,[42] the venom toxicity of C. tigris is considered to exist amongst the highest of all rattlesnake venoms, and among the highest of all snakes in the Western Hemisphere based on LDl studies conducted on laboratory mice. C. scutulatus is also widely regarded as producing one of the most toxic snake venoms in the Americas, based on LD50 studies in laboratory mice.[43]

Rattlesnake venom is a mixture of 5 to 15 enzymes, diverse metal ions, biogenic amines, lipids, free amino acids, proteins, and polypeptides. It contains components evolved to immobilize and disable the prey, as well as digestive enzymes, which break down tissue to prepare for afterwards ingestion.[34] [38] The venom is very stable, and retains its toxicity for many years in storage.[34]

Older snakes possess more strong venom, and larger snakes are oftentimes capable of storing larger volumes of it.[44]

Rattle [edit]

Video of a timber rattlesnake shaking its rattle

The rattle serves as a warning for predators of the rattlesnake.[45] The rattle is equanimous of a serial of hollow, interlocked segments made of keratin, which are created by modifying the scales that cover the tip of the tail. The contraction of special "shaker" muscles in the tail causes these segments to vibrate against ane another, making the rattling noise (which is amplified because the segments are hollow) in a behavior known as tail vibration.[1] [46] [47] The muscles that crusade the rattle to shake are some of the fastest known, firing l times per 2nd on average, sustained for upward to 3 hours.[48]

At birth, a "prebutton" is present at the tip of the ophidian'due south tail; it is replaced by the "push button" several days after when the first skin is shed. However, no sound can be made by the rattle until a second segment is added when the pare is shed over again.[49] A new rattle segment is added each time the snake sheds its skin, and the serpent may shed its peel several times a year, depending on food supply and growth rate.

Rattlesnakes travel with their rattles held up to protect them from damage, but in spite of this precaution, their day-to-twenty-four hours activities in the wild withal cause them to regularly suspension off end segments. Considering of this, the number of rattles on its tail is non related to the historic period of a rattlesnake.[i] [47] [48]

Compared to females, males have thicker and longer tails (because they contain the inverted hemipenes). Also, the tails of males taper gradually from the body, whereas the tails of females narrow abruptly at the vent.[50]

Pare and circulation [edit]

Rattlesnakes, like other members of the Squamata lodge, have a circulatory system that is powered past a three-chambered centre composed of two atria and 1 ventricle.[51] The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from veins coming from the systemic circuit. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs in the pulmonary circuit and pumps it to the ventricle and through the systemic circuit via capillaries and arteries.[52]

Rattlesnake pare has a ready of overlapping scales that cover the entire trunk, providing protection from a variety of threats, including dehydration and physical trauma.[53] The typical rattlesnake, genus Crotalus, has the top of its head covered with pocket-size scales, except, with a few species, a few crowded plates straight over the snout.[54] The skin of snakes is highly sensitive to contact, tension, and pressure; they are capable of feeling pain.[55]

An important function of the skin is the sensation of changes in air temperature, which can guide the snakes towards warm basking/shelter locations.[56] All snakes are ectotherms. To maintain a stable body temperature, they exchange oestrus with their external environments. Snakes often motility into open, sunny areas to absorb oestrus from the lord's day and warmed globe, a behavior known equally basking. Nerves in the pare regulate the flow of blood into the veins virtually the surface.[55]

The pare of rattlesnakes is intricately patterned in a manner that camouflages them from their predators.[56] [57] Rattlesnakes do non generally take bright or showy colors (reds, yellows, dejection, etc.), instead relying on subtle earth tones that resemble the surrounding surround.[58]

Creases in the epidermal tissue connect the scales of rattlesnakes. When ingesting big prey, these creases can unfold, allowing the skin to expand to envelop a much greater volume. The skin appears to tightly stretch to accommodate the meal, merely in reality, the skin is simply smoothing out from its creased state and is not under very high tension.[59]

Reproduction [edit]

Most rattlesnake species mate during the summer or fall, while some species mate only in the spring, or during both the bound and fall.[60]

Females secrete small-scale amounts of sex pheromones, which get out a trail the males follow using their tongues and Jacobson's organs as guides.[lx] Once a receptive female has been located, the male person oft spends several days following her effectually (a beliefs not mutual outside of the mating season), frequently touching and rubbing her in an attempt to stimulate her.[61] [62]

The males of some species, such as timber rattlesnakes (C. horridus), fight each other during the mating flavor, in competition over females. These fights, known every bit "combat dances", consist of the two males intertwining the anterior portion of their bodies, often with their heads and necks held vertically. The larger males commonly end up driving the smaller males away.[63] [64]

Although many kinds of snakes and other reptiles are oviparous (lay eggs), rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous (give birth to alive young after carrying eggs inside).[65] The female produces the ova ("eggs") in her ovaries, afterwards which they pass through her trunk cavity and into one of her ii oviducts. The ova are bundled in a continuous chain in a coiled section of the oviduct, known equally the "tuba".[61] Male rattlesnakes take sexual organs known as hemipenes, located in the base of operations of the tail. The hemipenis is retracted inside of the trunk when mating is not occurring. The hemipenis is similar to the human being penis. Females can shop semen for months in internal recesses known equally spermathecae, which permits them to mate during the fall, simply not fertilize the ova until the post-obit spring.[61] The Arizona black rattlesnake (C. oreganus cerberus), has been observed to exhibit complex social behavior reminiscent of that in mammals. Females oftentimes remain with their immature in nests for several weeks, and mothers have been observed co-operatively parenting their broods.[66]

Rattlesnakes by and large take several years to mature, and females usually reproduce just once every three years.[67]

Brumation [edit]

In the colder wintertime months, some rattlesnake species enter a period of brumation, which is dormancy like to hibernation. They often gather together for brumation in large numbers (sometimes over 1,000 snakes), huddling together inside surreptitious "rattlesnake dens" or hibernacula.[68] [69] They regularly share their winter burrows with a wide variety of other species (such as turtles, small mammals, invertebrates, and other types of snakes).[68]

Rattlesnakes often return to the same den, year after yr, sometimes traveling several miles to go there. How the rattlesnakes detect their way back to the dens each twelvemonth is unknown, only may involve a combination of pheromone trails and visual cues (due east.1000., topography, celestial navigation, and solar orientation).[lxx]

Species with long periods of brumation tend to have much lower reproductive rates than those with shorter brumation periods or those that do non brumate at all. Female person timber rattlesnakes in high peaks in the Appalachian Mountains of New England reproduce every three years on average; the lance-headed rattlesnake (C. polystictus), native to the warm climate of Mexico, reproduces annually.[71]

Like almost other snakes, rattlesnakes aestivate during very hot or dry periods, which is why they are rarely seen during the hottest and driest months of summer.[72]

Conservation status [edit]

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid developed areas, preferring undisturbed, natural habitats. Rapid habitat devastation by humans, mass killings during events such as rattlesnake circular-ups, and deliberate extermination campaigns all pose threats to rattlesnake populations in many areas. Several species, such as the timber rattlesnake, massasauga, and canebrake rattlesnake, are listed as threatened or endangered in many U.S. states.[73]

Many rattlesnakes die from beingness run over by cars.[21]

In more than heavily populated and trafficked areas, reports have been increasing of rattlesnakes that do not rattle. This phenomenon is commonly attributed to selective pressure past humans, who often kill the snakes when they are discovered.[74] Nonrattling snakes are more probable to go unnoticed, so survive to reproduce offspring that, like themselves, are less likely to rattle.

Safety and beginning aid [edit]

A rattlesnake warning sign in California

Rattlesnakes are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in North America and a significant cause in Central and Southward America.[41] [75]

Fugitive bites [edit]

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid wide-open spaces where they cannot hide from predators, and generally avoid humans if they are aware of their approach.[76] Rattlesnakes rarely bite unless they feel threatened or provoked. A majority of victims (nigh 72%[77]) are males, often immature and intoxicated. Around one-half of bites occur in cases where the victim saw the snake, nevertheless fabricated no effort to motility away.[34]

Harassing or attacking a rattlesnake, illegal in some jurisdictions, puts i at much college take chances of a bite. Rattlesnakes seek to avert humans and other predators or big herbivores that themselves pose lethal danger.[78] Dogs, often much more than aggressive than humans, are much more likely to experience a snakebite, and are more than likely to die of a rattlesnake bite. Dogs can exist vaccinated against rattlesnake bites.[79]

Caution is advised fifty-fifty when snakes are believed to be expressionless; rattlesnake heads can sense, film the tongue, and inflict venomous bites reflexively for up to an hr after beingness severed from the body.[lxxx] [81]

Effect of bites on humans [edit]

An estimated seven,000 to 8,000 people are bitten by venomous snakes in the United States each year, with about v deaths.[82] The most important factor in survival following a severe envenomation is the time elapsed between the bite and treatment. Almost deaths occur between 6 and 48 hours after the seize with teeth. If antivenom handling is given inside two hours of the seize with teeth, the probability of recovery is greater than 99%.[83]

When a bite occurs, the amount of venom injected is under voluntary command by the ophidian. The corporeality released depends on a variety of factors, including the status of the snake (e.1000., having long, healthy fangs and a total venom sack) and its temperament (an angry, hungry snake that has simply been stepped on vs. a satiated snake that was merely surprised by walking almost it).[84] About 20% of bites upshot in no envenomation at all. A lack of burning hurting and edema 38  in (1 cm) abroad from the fang marks afterward one hr suggests either no or minimal envenomation occurred. A lack of edema or erythema in the area of the bite later eight hours indicates a lack of envenomation for about rattlesnake bites.[85]

Common symptoms include swelling, astringent pain, tingling, weakness, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, hemorrhaging, perspiration, and (rarely) middle failure.[84] [86] Local pain following envenomation is often intense, increasing with the ensuing edema.[84] Children generally experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per unit of body mass.[85]

Antivenom [edit]

Antivenom, or antivenin, is commonly used to treat the effects of local and systemic pit viper envenomations.[87] The offset step in the production of crotaline antivenom is collecting ("milking") the venom of a live rattlesnake—normally from the western diamondback (Crotalus atrox), eastern diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus), S American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissis terrificus), or fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox). The extracted venom is and so diluted and injected into horses, goats, or sheep, whose immune systems produce antibodies that protect from the toxic furnishings of the venom. These antibodies accumulate in the claret, which is then extracted and centrifuged to separate the reddish blood cells. The resulting serum is purified into a lyophilized powder, which is packaged for distribution and afterwards use past homo patients.[88] [89]

Because antivenom is derived from fauna antibodies, people generally brandish an allergic response during infusion, known every bit serum sickness.[90] [91]

Veterinary intendance [edit]

In the United states of america, more than than fifteen,000 domesticated animals are bitten by snakes each year. Rattlesnake envenomations account for 80% of the deadly incidents.[92]

Dogs are most commonly bitten on the front legs and head. Horses mostly receive bites on the muzzle, and cattle on their tongues and muzzles. If a domesticated brute is bitten, the hair around the bite should exist removed and then the wound can exist clearly seen. The crotaline Fab antivenom has been shown to be effective in the treatment of canine rattlesnake bites. Symptoms include swelling, slight bleeding, sensitivity, shaking, and anxiety.[44]

In human being culture [edit]

Spirituality [edit]

Indigenous Americans [edit]

Aztec paintings, Central American temples, and the great burial mounds in the Southeastern United States are oft adorned with depictions of rattlesnakes, often within the symbols and emblems of the most powerful deities.[93]

The Feathered Serpent of Mesoamerican religion was depicted equally having the combined features of the quetzal and rattlesnake.[94] The Ancient Maya considered the rattlesnake to be a "vision serpent" that acted every bit a conduit to the "otherworld".[95]

Rattlesnakes are a key element in Aztec mythology and were widely represented in Aztec fine art, including sculptures, jewelry, and architectural elements.

Christian snake-handling sects [edit]

Members of some Christian sects in the Southern United States are regularly bitten while participating in "serpent handling" rituals. Snake treatment is when people agree venomous snakes, unprotected, every bit part of a religious service inspired by a literal estimation of the Bible verses Mark sixteen:17–18, which reads, "In my proper noun ... they volition option upward snakes with their easily".[34] [96]

Equally food [edit]

Journalist Alistair Cooke claimed that rattlesnake tastes "just like chicken, only tougher".[97] Others have compared the flavor to a broad range of other meats, including veal, frog, tortoise, quail, fish, rabbit, and fifty-fifty canned tuna.[98] Methods of preparation include barbecueing[99] and frying; author Maud Newton, following a recipe past Harry Crews, described the taste, "at least when breaded and fried, similar a sinewy, half-starved tilapia."[100]

Symbolism [edit]

The rattlesnake became a symbolic beast for the Colonials during the Revolutionary State of war catamenia, and is depicted prominently on the Gadsden Flag. Information technology continues to be used as a symbol past the United states of america armed services, and political movements inside the U.s.a..

Run across likewise [edit]

  • List of crotaline species and subspecies

References [edit]

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Farther reading [edit]

  • Barceloux, Donald G., ed. (2008). Medical toxicology of natural substances: foods, fungi, medicinal herbs, plants, and venomous animals. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-471-72761-iii.
  • Cornett, James Due west. (1998). Rattlesnakes: Answers to Frequent Questions. Palm Springs, California: Nature Trails Printing. ISBN0-937794-23-6.
  • Dalstrom, Harl A. "'Snake Hunting Has Been Shamefully Neglected': A. Thou. Jackly and Rattlesnake Abatement in South Dakota," South Dakota History 43 (Fall 2013), 177–217.
  • Furman, Jon (2007). Timber rattlesnakes in Vermont and New York: biology, history, and the fate of an endangered species. UPNE. ISBN978-1-58465-656-2.
  • Hubbs, Brian & Brendan O'Connor (2012). A Guide to the Rattlesnakes and other Venomous Serpents of the United States. Tricolor Books. Tempe, Arizona. ISBN 978-0-9754641-3-seven.
  • Klauber, Laurence M. & Greene, Harry W. (1997). Rattlesnakes: their habits, life histories, and influence on mankind. Academy of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-21056-ane.
  • Palmer, Thomas (2004). Mural with Reptile: Rattlesnakes in an Urban World. Globe Pequot. ISBN978-1-59228-000-1.
  • Rubio, Manny (1998). Rattlesnake: Portrait of a Predator. Smithsonian Books. ISBN1-56098-808-viii.

External links [edit]

  • "Climate Changes Faster Than Species Can Adapt, Rattlesnake Written report Finds", Scientific discipline Daily, Dec. 05, 2011
  • Justin's Rattlesnake Bite
  • "Rattlesnake". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
  • "Rattlesnake". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattlesnake

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